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History Of Technology

Measuring technological progress

Many sociologists and anthropologists have created social theories dealing with social and cultural evolution. Some, like Lewis H. Morgan, Leslie White, and Gerhard Lenski, declare technological progress to be the primary factor driving the development of human civilization. Morgan’s concept of three major stages of social evolution (savagery, barbarism, and civilization) can be divided by technological milestones, like fire, the bow, and pottery in the savage era, domestication of animals, agriculture, and metalworking in the barbarian era and the alphabet and writing in the civilization era.

Instead of specific inventions, White decided that the measure by which to judge the evolution of culture was energy. For White “the primary function of culture” is to “harness and control energy.” White differentiates between five stages of human development: In the first, people use energy of their own muscles. In the second, they use energy of domesticated animals. In the third, they use the energy of plants (agricultural revolution). In the fourth, they learn to use the energy of natural resources: coal, oil, gas. In the fifth, they harness nuclear energy. White introduced a formula P=E*T, where E is a measure of energy consumed, and T is the measure of efficiency of technical factors utilizing the energy. In his own words, “culture evolves as the amount of energy harnessed per capita per year is increased, or as the efficiency of the instrumental means of putting the energy to work is increased”. Russian astronomer, Nikolai Kardashev, extrapolated his theory creating the Kardashev scale, which categorizes the energy use of advanced civilizations.

Lenski takes a more modern approach and focuses on information. The more information and knowledge (especially allowing the shaping of natural environment) a given society has, the more advanced it is. He identifies four stages of human development, based on advances in the history of communication. In the first stage, information is passed by genes. In the second, when humans gain sentience, they can learn and pass information through by experience. In the third, the humans start using signs and develop logic. In the fourth, they can create symbols, develop language and writing. Advancements in the technology of communication translates into advancements in the economic system and political system, distribution of wealth, social inequality and other spheres of social life. He also differentiates societies based on their level of technology, communication and economy:

hunters and gatherers,

simple agricultural,

advanced agricultural,

industrial,

special (such as fishing societies).

Finally, from the late 1970s sociologists and anthropologists like Alvin Toffler (author of Future Shock), Daniel Bell and John Naisbitt have approached the theories of post-industrial societies, arguing that the current era of industrial society is coming to an end, and services and information are becoming more important than industry and goods. Some of the more extreme visions of the post-industrial society, especially in fiction, are strikingly similar to the visions of near and post-Singularity societies.

By period and geography

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Early technology

Agriculture preceded writing in the history of technology.

Olduvai stone technology (Olduwan) 2.5 million years ago (scrapers; to butcher dead animals)

Acheulean stone technology 1.6 million years ago (hand axe)

Fire creation and manipulation, used since the Paleolithic, possibly by Homo erectus as early as 1.5 Million years ago

(Homo sapiens sapiens – modern human anatomy arises, around 200,000 years ago.)

Clothing possibly 100,000 years ago.

Stone tools, used by Homo floresiensis, possibly 100,000 years ago.

Ceramics ca. 25,000 BC

Domestication of Animals, ca. 15,000 BC

Bow, sling ca. 9th millennium BC

Microliths ca. 9th millennium BC

Copper ca. 8000 BC

Agriculture and Plough ca. 8000 BC

Wheel ca. 4000 BC

Gnomon ca. 4000 BC

Writing systems ca. 3500 BC

Bronze ca. 3300 BC

Salt

Chariot ca. 2000 BC

Iron ca. 1500 BC

Sundial ca. 800 BC

Glass ca. 500 BC

Catapult ca. 400 BC

Horseshoe ca. 300 BC

Stirrup first few centuries AD

Stone Age

A variety of stone tools

During the Stone Age, all humans had a lifestyle which involved limited use of tools and few, if any, permanent settlements. The first major technologies, then, were tied to survival, hunting, and food preparation in this environment. Fire, stone tools and weapons, and clothing were technological developments of major importance during this period. Stone Age cultures developed music, and engaged in organized warfare. A subset of Stone Age humans developed ocean-worthy outrigger ship technology, leading to an eastward migration across the Malay archipelago, across the Indian ocean to Madagascar and also across the Pacific Ocean, which required knowledge of the ocean currents, weather patterns, sailing, celestial navigation, and star maps. The early Stone Age is described as Epipaleolithic or Mesolithic. The former is generally used to describe the early Stone Age in areas with limited glacial impact. The later Stone Age, during which the rudiments of agricultural technology were developed, is called the Neolithic period. During this period, polished stone tools were made from a variety of hard rocks such as flint, jade, jadeite and greenstone, largely by working exposures as quarries, but later the valuable rocks were pursued by tunnelling underground, the first steps in mining technology. The polished axes were used for forest clearance and the establishment of crop farming, and were so effective as to remain in use when bronze and iron appeared.

Although Paleolithic cultures left no written records, the shift from nomadic life to settlement and agriculture can be inferred from a range of archaeological evidence. Such evidence includes ancient tools, cave paintings, and other prehistoric art, such as the Venus of Willendorf. Human remains also provide direct evidence, both through the examination of bones, and the study of mummies. Though concrete evidence is limited, scientists and historians have been able to form significant inferences about the lifestyle and culture of various prehistoric peoples, and the role technology played in their lives.

Copper and Bronze Age

A late Bronze Age sword or dagger blade.

The Stone Age developed into the Bronze Age after the Neolithic Revolution. The Neolithic Revolution involved radical changes in agricultural technology which included development of agriculture, animal domestication, and the adoption of permanent settlements. These combined factors made possible the development of metal smelting, with copper and later bronze, an alloy of tin and copper, being the materials of choice, although polished stone tools continued to be used for a considerable time owing to their abundance compared with the less common metals (especially tin).

This technological trend apparently began in the Fertile Crescent, and spread outward over time. It should be noted that these developments were not, and still are not, universal. The Three-age system does not accurately describe the technology history of groups outside of Eurasia, and does not apply at all in the case of some isolated populations, such as the Spinifex People, the Sentinelese, and various Amazonian tribes, which still make use of Stone Age technology, and have not developed agricultural or metal technology.

Iron Age

An axehead made of iron, dating from Swedish Iron Age.

The Iron Age involved the adoption of iron smelting technology. It generally replaced bronze, and made it possible to produce tools which were stronger and cheaper to make than bronze equivalents. In many Eurasian cultures, the Iron Age was the last major step before the development of written language, though again this was not universally the case. It was not possible to mass manufacture steel because high furnace temperatures were needed, but steel could be produced by forging bloomery iron to reduce the carbon content in a controllable way. Iron ores were much more widespread than either copper or tin. In Europe, large hill forts were built either as a refuge in time of war, or sometimes as permanent settlements. In some cases, existing forts from the Bronze Age were expanded and enlarged. The pace of land clearance using the more effective iron axes increased, providing more farmland to support the growing population.

By 1000 BC 500 BC, the Germanic tribes had a Bronze Age civilization, while the Celts were in the Iron Age by the time of the Hallstatt culture. Their cultures collided with the military and agricultural practices of the Romans, leading those Europeans who were conquered to adopt Roman technological advances.

Ancient civilizations

Main article: Ancient technology

It was the growth of the ancient civilizations which produced the greatest advances in technology and engineering, advances which stimulated other societies to adopt new ways of living and governance.

The Egyptians invented and used many simple machines, such as the ramp to aid construction processes. The Indus Valley Civilization, situated in a resource-rich area, is notable for its early application of city planning and sanitation technologies. Ancient India was also at the forefront of seafaring technology panel found at Mohenjodaro, depicts a sailing craft. Indian construction and architecture, called ‘Vaastu Shastra’, suggests a thorough understanding of materials engineering, hydrology, and sanitation.

The Chinese made many first-known discoveries and developments. Major technological contributions from China include early seismological detectors, matches, paper, cast iron, the iron plough, the multi-tube seed drill, the suspension bridge, the parachute, natural gas as fuel, the magnetic compass, the raised-relief map, the propeller, the crossbow, the South Pointing Chariot, and gun powder.

An illustration of the aeolipile, the earliest steam-powered device

Greek and Hellenistic engineers invented many technologies and improved upon pre-existing technologies. Particularly the Hellenistic period saw a sharp rise in technological inventiveness, fostered by a climate of openness to new idea, royal patronage the blossom of a mechanistic philosophy and the establishment of the Library of Alexandria and its close association with the adjacent museion. In contrast to the typically anonymous inventor of earlier ages, ingenuine minds such as Archimedes, Philo of Byzantium, Heron and Ctesibius now remained known by name to posterity.

Ancient Greek innovations were particularly pronounced in mechanical technology, including the ground-breaking invention of the watermill which constituted the first human-devised motive force not to rely on muscle labour (besides the sail). Apart from their pioneer use of waterpower, Greek inventors were also the first to experiment with wind power (see Heron’s windwheel) and even created the earliest steam engine (the aeolipile), opening up entirely new possibilities in harnessing natural forces whose full potential came only to be exploited in the industrial revolution. Of particular importance for the operation of mechanical devices became the newly devised right-angled gear and the screw.

The compartmented water-wheel, here its overshot version, was invented in Hellenistic times

Ancient agriculture, as in any period prior to the modern age the primary mode of production and subsistence, and its irrigation methods were considerably advanced by the invention and widespread application of a number of previously unknown water-lifting devices, such as the vertical water-wheel, the compartmented wheel, the water turbine, Archimedes screw, the suction pump, the bucket-chain and pot-garland, the force pump, the suction pump, the double-action piston pump and quite possibly the chain pump.

In music, water organ, invented by Ctesibius and subsequently improved, constituted the earliest instance of a keyboard instrument. In time-keeping, the introduction of the inflow clepsydra and its mechanization by the dial and pointer, the application of a feedback system and the escapement mechanism far superseded the earlier outflow clepsydra.

The famous Antikythera mechanism, a kind of analogous computer working with a differential gear, and the astrolabe show great refinement in the astronomical science.

Greek engineers were also the first to devise automaton such as vending machines, suspended ink pots, automatic washstands and doors, primarily as toys, which however featured many new useful mechanisms such as the cam and gimbals.

In other fields, ancient Greek inventions include the catapult and the gastraphetes crossbow in warfare, hollow bronze-casting in metallurgy, the dioptra for surveying, in infrastructure the lighthouse, central heating, the tunnel excavated from both ends by scientific calculations, the ship trackway, the dry dock and plumbing. In horizontal vertical and transport great progress resulted from the invention of the crane, the winch, the wheelbarrow and the odometer.

Further newly created techniques and items were spiral staircases, the chain drive, sliding calipers and showers.

Pont du Gard in France, a Roman aqueduct

The Romans developed an intensive and sophisticated agriculture, expanded upon existing iron working technology, created laws providing for individual ownership, advanced stone masonry technology, advanced road-building (exceeded only in the 19th century), military engineering, civil engineering, spinning and weaving and several different machines like the Gallic reaper that helped to increase productivity in many sectors of the Roman economy. Roman engineers were the first to build monumental arches, amphitheatres, aqueducts, public baths, true arch bridges, harbours, reservoirs and dams, vaults and domes on a very large scale across their Empire. Notable Roman inventions include the book (Codex), glass blowing and concrete. Because Rome was located on a volcanic peninsula, with sand which contained suitable crystalline grains, the concrete which the Romans formulated was especially durable. Some of their buildings have lasted 2000 years, to the present day.

The engineering skills of the Inca and the Mayans were great, even by today’s standards. An example is the use of pieces weighing in upwards of one ton in their stonework placed together so that not even a blade can fit in-between the cracks. The villages used irrigation canals and drainage systems, making agriculture very efficient. While some claim that the Incas were the first inventors of hydroponics, their agricultural technology was still soil based, if advanced. Though the Maya civilization had no metallurgy or wheel technology, they developed complex writing and astrological systems, and created sculptural works in stone and flint. Like the Inca, the Maya also had command of fairly advanced agricultural and construction technology. Throughout this time period much of this construction, was made only by women, as men of the Maya civilization believed that females were responsible for the creation of new things. The main contribution of the Aztec rule was a system of communications between the conquered cities. In Mesoamerica, without draft animals for transport (nor, as a result, wheeled vehicles), the roads were designed for travel on foot, just like the Inca and Mayan civilizations.

Medieval and Modern technologies

Medieval Europe

Medieval counterweight trebuchet (reconstruction)

Main article: Medieval technology

European technology in the Middle Ages may be best described as a symbiosis of traditio et innovatio. While medieval technology has been long depicted as a step backwards in the evolution of Western technology, sometimes willfully so by modern authors intent on denouncing the church as antagonistic to scientific progress (see e.g. Myth of the Flat Earth), a generation of medievalists around the American historian of science Lynn White stressed from the 1940s onwards the innovative character of many medieval techniques. Genuine medieval contributions include for example mechanical clocks, spectacles and vertical windmills. Medieval ingenuity was also displayed in the invention of seemingly inconspicuous items like the watermark or the functional button. In navigation, the foundation to the subsequent age of exploration was laid by the introduction of pintle-and-gudgeon rudders, lateen sails, the dry compass the horseshoe and the astrolabe.

Significant advances were also made in military technology with the development of plate armour, steel crossbows, counterweight trebuchets and cannon. Perhaps best known are the Middle Ages for their architectural heritage: While the invention of the rib vault and pointed arch gave rise to the high rising Gothic style, the ubiquitous medieval fortifications gave the era the almost proverbial title of the ‘age of castles’.

Muslim Agricultural Revolution

Main articles: Muslim Agricultural Revolution, Inventions in the Islamic world, and Timeline of Muslim scientists and engineers

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From the 8th century, the medieval Islamic world witnessed a fundamental transformation in agriculture known as the “Muslim Agricultural Revolution”, “Arab Agricultural Revolution”, or “Green Revolution”. Due to the global economy established by Muslim traders across the Old World during the “Afro-Asiatic age of discovery” or “Pax Islamica”, this enabled the diffusion of many crops, plants and farming techniques between different parts of the Islamic world, as well as the adaptation of crops, plants and techniques from beyond the Islamic world, distributed throughout Islamic lands which normally would not be able to grow these crops. The diffusion of numerous crops during this period led, along with an increased mechanization of agriculture, led to major changes in economy, population distribution, vegetation cover, agricultural production and income, population levels, urban growth, the distribution of the labour force, linked industries, cooking and diet, clothing, and numerous other aspects of life in the Islamic world.

Muslim engineers in the Islamic world were responsible for numerous innovative industrial uses of hydropower, the early industrial uses of tidal power, wind power, and petroleum, and large factory complexes (tiraz in Arabic). The industrial uses of watermills were in widespread use since the 8th century. A variety of industrial mills were developed in the Islamic world, including fulling mills, gristmills, hullers, paper mills, sawmills, shipmills, stamp mills, steel mills, sugar mills, and windmills. By the 11th century, every province throughout the Islamic world had these industrial mills in operation, from al-Andalus and North Africa to the Middle East and Central Asia. Muslim engineers also developed crankshafts and water turbines.

A significant number of inventions were produced by Muslim scientists and engineers during this time, including inventors such as Abbas Ibn Firnas, Taqi al-Din, and especially al-Jazari. Some of the developments from the Islamic Golden Age include the coffee, hard soap, shampoo, nitric acid, alembic, valve, reciprocating, quilting, surgical catgut, windmill, inoculation, fountain pen, cryptanalysis, frequency analysis, quartz glass, modern cheque, explosive rockets and incendiary devices.

Renaissance

Main article: Renaissance technology

Dome of Florence Cathedral

Design for a flying machine (c.1488) by da Vinci

The era is marked by such profound technical advancements like the printing press, linear perceptivity, patent law, double shell domes or Bastion fortresses. Note books of the Renaissance artist-engineers such as Taccola and Leonardo da Vinci give a deep insight into the mechanical technology then known and applied. Architects and engineers were inspired by the structures of Ancient Rome, and men like Brunelleschi created the large dome of Florence Cathedral as a result. He was awarded one of the first patents ever issued in order to protect an ingenious crane he designed to raise the large masonry stones to the top of the structure. Military technology developed rapidly with the widespread use of the cross-bow and ever more powerful artillery, as the city-states of Italy were usually in conflict with one another. Powerful families like the Medici were strong patrons of the arts and sciences. Renaissance science spawned the Scientific Revolution; science and technology began a cycle of mutual advancement.

Age of Exploration

Main article: Age of Exploration

The sailing ship (Nau or Carrack) enabled the Age of Exploration with the European colonization of the Americas, epitomized by Francis Bacon’s The New Atlantis. Pioneers like Vasco de Gama, Cabral, Magellan and Christopher Columbus explored the world in search of new trade routes for their goods and contacts with Africa, India and China which shortened the journey compared with traditional routes overland. They also re-discovered the Americas while doing so. They produced new maps and charts which enabled following mariners to explore further with greater confidence. Navigation was generally difficult however owing to the problem of longitude and the absence of accurate chronometers. European powers rediscovered the idea of the civil code, lost since the time of the Ancient Greeks.

Industrial Revolution

Main article: Industrial Revolution

A Watt steam engine

The Iron Bridge

The British Industrial Revolution is characterized by developments in the areas of textile manufacturing, mining, metallurgy and transport driven by the development of the steam engine. Above all else, the revolution was driven by cheap energy in the form of coal, produced in ever-increasing amounts from the abundant resources of Britain. Coal converted to coke gave the blast furnace and cast iron in much larger amounts than before, and a range of structures could be created, such as The Iron Bridge. Cheap coal meant that industry was no longer constrained by water resources driving the mills, although it continued as a valuable source of power. The steam engine helped drain the mines, so more coal reserves could be accessed, and the output of coal increased. The development of the high-pressure steam engine made locomotives possible, and a transport revolution followed.

19th century

The preserved Rocket

The 19th century saw astonishing developments in transportation, construction, and communication technologies originating in Europe, especially in Britain. The Steam Engine which had existed since the early 18th century, was practically applied to both steamboat and railway transportation. The first purpose built railway line opened between Manchester and Liverpool in 1830, the Rocket locomotive of Robert Stephenson being one of the first working locomotives used on the line. Telegraphy also developed into a practical technology in the 19th century to help run the railways safely.

Other technologies were explored for the first time, including the Incandescent light bulb. The Portsmouth Block Mills was where manufacture of ships’ pulley blocks by all-metal machines first took place and instigated the age of mass production. Machine tools used by engineers to manufacture other machines began in the first decade of the century, notably by Richard Roberts and Joseph Whitworth. Steamships were eventually completely iron-clad, and played a role in the opening of Japan and China to trade with the West. Mechanical computing was envisioned by Charles Babbage but did not come to fruition. The Second Industrial Revolution at the end of the 19th century saw rapid development of chemical, electrical, petroleum, and steel technologies connected with highly structured technology research.

20th century

Landing on the Moon

20th Century technology developed rapidly. Communication technology, transportation technology, broad teaching and implementation of scientific method, and increased research spending all contributed to the advancement of modern science and technology. Due to the scientific gains directly tied to military research and development, technologies including electronic computing might have developed as rapidly as they did in part due to war. Radio, radar, and early sound recording were key technologies which paved the way for the telephone, fax machine, and magnetic storage of data. Energy and engine technology improvements were also vast, including nuclear power, developed after the Manhattan project. Transport by rocketry: most work occurred in the U.S. (Goddard), Russia (Tsiolkovsky) and Germany (Oberth). Making use of computers and advanced research labs, modern scientists have recombinant DNA.

The National Academy of Engineering, by expert vote, established the following ranking of the most important technological developments of the 20th century :

Electrification

Automobile

Airplane

Water supply and Distribution

Electronics

Radio and Television

Mechanised agriculture

Computers

Telephone

Air Conditioning and Refrigeration

Highways

Spacecraft

Internet

Imaging

Household appliances

Health Technologies

Petroleum and Petrochemical Technologies

Laser and Fiber Optics

Nuclear technologies

Materials science

21st century

The Mars Exploration Rovers have provided huge amounts of information by functioning well beyond NASA’s original lifespan estimates.

Main article: 2000s in science and technology

In the 21st century, technology is being developed even more rapidly, especially in electronics and biotechnology. Broadband Internet access became commonplace in developed countries, as did connecting home computers with music libraries and mobile phones.

Research is ongoing into quantum computers, nanotechnology, bioengineering, nuclear fusion (see ITER and DEMO), advanced materials (e.g., enhanced armor), the scramjet (along with railguns and high-energy beams for military uses), superconductivity, the memristor, and green technologies such as alternative fuels (e.g., fuel cells, plugin hybrid cars) and more efficient LEDs and solar cells.

The understanding of particle physics is also expected to expand through particle accelerator projects, such as the Large Hadron Collider the largest science project in the world and neutrino detectors such as the ANTARES. Theoretical physics currently investigates quantum gravity proposals such as M-theory, superstring theory, and loop quantum gravity.

Spacecraft designs are also being developed, i.a. under the Project Constellation (see Orion and Ares V). The James Webb Space Telescope will try to identify early galaxies as well as the exact location of the Solar System within our galaxy, using the infrared spectrum. The finished International Space Station will provide an intermediate platform for space missions and zero gravity experiments. Despite challenges and criticism, NASA and ESA plan a manned mission to Mars in the 2030s.

By type of technology

History of biotechnology

This section requires expansion.

Main article: History of biotechnology

To be incorporated into main article:

Timeline of agriculture and food technology

Hunter-gatherer

Agriculture

Food science

Genetically modified food

History of agricultural science

History of gardening

Biotechnology (timeline, etc.)

History of sushi

History of tea in China

History of civil engineering

This section requires expansion.

Main articles: History of civil engineering and History of construction

To be incorporated:

Civil engineering

Architecture and building construction

Bridges, harbors, tunnels, dams

Surveying, instruments and maps, cartography, urban engineering, water supply and sewerage

History of communication

This section requires expansion.

Main article: History of communication

To be incorporated:

Communications

Writing systems

Telecommunications

History of mobile phones

History of animation

History of broadcasting

History of radar

History of radio

Printing

Cinema

Radio

Television

Internet

History of computing

Main article: History of computer hardware

History of computing hardware before 1960

History of computing hardware (1960sresent)

History of computer hardware in Soviet Bloc countries

History of computer science

History of operating systems

History of software engineering

History of programming languages

History of artificial intelligence

History of the graphical user interface

History of the Internet

History of the World Wide Web

History of computer and video games

History of consumer technology

This section requires expansion.

Main article: History of consumer technology

To be incorporated:

Timeline of lighting technology

History of textiles and clothing

History of materials science

Family and consumer science

History of knitting

History of lensmaking

History of the chair

History of the umbrella

Manufacturing

History of electrical engineering

This section requires expansion.

Main article: Electrical Engineering#History

To be incorporated:

History of street lighting in the United States

History of energy technology

This section requires expansion.

Main article: History of energy

To be incorporated:

Energy (History, Use by humans, See also)

History of coal mining

History of perpetual motion machines

Timeline of steam power

Timeline of hydrogen technologies

Timeline of alcohol fuel

Timeline of nuclear fusion

History of materials science

This section requires expansion.

Main article: History of materials science

To be incorporated:

Timeline of materials technology

Metallurgy

Materials and processing

History of measurement

This section requires expansion.

Main article: History of measurement

To be incorporated:

History of time in the United States

Timeline of time measurement technology

History of medicine

Main article: History of medicine

This section requires expansion.

History of military technology

This section requires expansion.

Main article: History of warfare

To be incorporated into main article:

Military history#Technological Evolution

Category:Military history articles on history of specific technologies

History of nuclear technology

Main article: Nuclear technology#History

Manhattan Project

Atomic Age

Nuclear testing

Nuclear arms race

History of science and technology

This section requires expansion.

Main article: History of science and technology

History of telescopes

Timeline of telescopes, observatories, and observing technology

Timeline of microscope technology

Timeline of particle physics technology

Timeline of low-temperature technology

Timeline of temperature and pressure measurement technology

History of transport technology

This section requires expansion.

Main article: Historic transport

To be incorporated into main article:

Timeline of motor and engine technology

Timeline of photography technology

Timeline of rocket and missile technology

Timeline of communication technology

See also

Science portal

Related history

History of science

History of mathematics

History of philosophy

Related disciplines

Timeline of historic inventions

List of independent discoveries

Critique of technology

Technical education

Philosophy of technology

History of science and technology (field of study)

History of ideas (field of study)

Technology Dynamics (field of study)

Technology

Engineering

Mechanical engineering

Science and technology in Canada

Related subjects

High technology

Simple machine

Deindustrialization

Future of science and technology (speculative)

Futures Wiki, an external wiki

Emerging technologies

Futurology

Technological singularity

Technocapitalism

Technological change

Technological determinism

Technology forecasting

Robotics

People

List of engineers and list of inventors

Biography of inventors and explorers

Technical societies

Technocracy

Technology and society

Historiography of science and technology

Kranzberg’s laws of technology

Lexikon der gesamten Technik

Exploratory engineering

Historians of science and technology

Johann Beckmann

I. Bernard Cohen

Ruth Schwartz Cowan

John L. Heilbron

Thomas P. Hughes

Daniel Kevles

Melvin Kranzberg

Thomas Kuhn

Dylan Stiddle

Lewis Mumford

Joseph Needham

Abraham Pais

George Sarton

Charles Singer

W. Patrick McCray

W. David Lewis

Silvio A. Bedini

Paul Josephson

Harry Lintsen

Journals and periodicals in the history of science and technology

History of Technology

ICON

Technology and Culture

Transactions of the Newcomen Society

Notebooks

Marx’s notebooks on the history of technology

Research institutes

Bell Labs

Max Planck Institute for the History of Science, Berlin

Notes

^ http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/01/0114_040114_siberianhumans.html

^ Oleson, John Peter (2000), “Water-Lifting”, in Wikander, rjan, Handbook of Ancient Water Technology, Technology and Change in History, 2, Leiden, pp. 217302, ISBN 90-04-11123-9 

^ Thomas F. Glick (1977), “Noria Pots in Spain”, Technology and Culture 18 (4), p. 644-650.

^ a b Andrew M. Watson (1974), “The Arab Agricultural Revolution and Its Diffusion, 700-1100″, The Journal of Economic History 34 (1), p. 8-35.

^ Andrew M. Watson (1983), Agricultural Innovation in the Early Islamic World, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 052124711X.

^ Maya Shatzmiller, p. 36.

^ Adam Robert Lucas (2005), “Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe”, Technology and Culture 46 (1), p. 1-30 .

^ Donald Routledge Hill, “Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East”, Scientific American, May 1991, p. 64-69. (cf. Donald Routledge Hill, Mechanical Engineering)

^ Bosworth, C. E. (Autumn 1981), “A Mediaeval Islamic Prototype of the Fountain Pen?”, Journal of Semitic Studies XXVl (i) 

^ “”Origins of the Fountain Pen “”. Muslimheritage.com. http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?articleID=365. Retrieved September 18 2007. 

^ Paul Vallely, How Islamic Inventors Changed the World, The Independent, 11 March 2006.

^ DiscoveryChannel.ca Colossal construction: The world’s nine largest science projects

References

Singer, C., Holmyard, E.J., Hall, A. R and Williams, T. I. (eds.), (1954-59 and 1978) A History of Technology,, 7 vols., Oxford, Clarendon Press,. (Vols 6 and 7, 1978, ed. T. I. Williams)

Kranzberg, Melvin and Pursell, Carroll W. Jr., eds. (1967)Technology in Western Civilization: Technology in the Twentieth Century New York: Oxford University Press.

Pacey, Arnold, (1974, 2ed 1994),The Maze of Ingenuity The MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass, 1974, [2ed 1994, cited here]

Derry, Thomas Kingston and Williams, Trevor I., (1993) A Short History of Technology: From the Earliest Times to A.D. 1900. New York: Dover Publications.

Brush, S. G. (1988). The History of Modern Science: A Guide to the Second Scientific Revolution 1800-1950. Ames: Iowa State University Press.

Bunch, Bryan and Hellemans, Alexander, (1993) The Timetables of Technology, New York, Simon and Schuster.

Greenwood, Jeremy (1997) The Third Industrial Revolution: Technology, Productivity and Income Inequality AEI Press.

Landa, Manuel de, War in the Age of Intelligent Machines, 2001.

Olby, R. C. et al., eds. (1996). Companion to the History of Modern Science,. New York, Routledge.

External links

Electropaedia on the History of Technology

http://www.fptt-pftt.gc.ca/success/century/1900_e.shtml This is a very good site for looking at Technology in the 1900s (20th century)

MIT 6.933J The Structure of Engineering Revolutions. From MIT OpenCourseWare, course materials (graduate level) for a course on the history of technology through a Thomas Kuhn-ian lens.

Concept of Civilization Events. From Jaroslaw Kessler, a chronology of “civilizing events”.

Ancient and Medieval City Technology

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Photography tips: Street in Venice

HDR Photography Photo Workshop $19.13 Learn the intricacies of High Dynamic Range photography from experts and get feedback on your workHigh Dynamic Range (HDR) photography offers a new range of creative possibilities to the photographer who is skilled in the technique. HDR requires specific camera skills as well as the use of specialized software, and the photographers who wrote this book are experts in both. They explain the process…

Beyond the Zone System, Fourth Edition $45.90 This fourth edition of Beyond the Zone System makes the science of photographic sensitometry both accessible and useful to interested photographers. It will appeal to any serious photographer interested in knowing how the materials and processes of black-and-white photography work. Instead of describing rote procedures to be followed blindly, this book provides the basis for understanding what n…

Night and Low-Light Photography Photo Workshop $29.99 Finally! A resource that sheds light on the unique challenges of night and low-light photographyWith their unique sets of challenges, night and low-light photography are often touted as some of the most difficult and frustrating genres of digital photography. This much-needed guide demystifies any murky topics provides you with all the information you need to know from choosing the right gear and …

Holga 146120 120 Color Flash Camera $36.95 The Holga CFN adds color to your Holga photography. The new Color Flash wheel is a built in flash which contains a spinning color filter wheel. Choose from red, yellow, blue, standard white or a combination thereof. Use the flash day or night to manipulate your images with vibrant colors. Features include: * Standard tripod mount (1/4 – 20) * Bulb exposure selector for extra long exposures. …

Lomography Colorsplash 35MM Camera $57.99 Product Description Hotstepping in glossy white, the Colorsplash camera will re-cast your world in a gorgeous riot of color. Its patented colorwheel system puts several tinted flash filters at your fingertips for instant selection; with an additional 9 filters included to exchange. Long exposure capability creates dreamy streaked backgrounds behind crisp, color-flashed foregrounds….

Lomography Holga 120 CFN Medium Format Camera with Color Flash $40.00 …

Time Exposure of a Spinning Color Wheel Showing a Spectrum of Hues Photographic Poster Print by Stephen St. John, 48×64 $199.99 Time Exposure of a Spinning Color Wheel Showing a Spectrum of Hues is digitally printed on archival photographic paper resulting in vivid, pure color and exceptional detail that is suitable for any museum or gallery display. Finding that perfect piece to match your interest and style is easy and within your budget!…

Ferris Wheel Blur Canvas Print / Canvas Art – Artist Al Powell Photography USA $97.48 This is a beautiful stretched-canvas print wrapped on 1.5″ thick stretcher bars. The print is professionally printed, assembled, and shipped within 2 – 3 business days from our production facility in North Carolina and arrives ready-to-hang on your wall. Fine Art America is home to more than 75,000 artists from all over the world who entrust us to fulfill their print orders online. We offer a 30-d…

The wheel that Ferris built Canvas Print / Canvas Art – Artist David Lee Thompson $123.51 This is a beautiful stretched-canvas print wrapped on 1.5″ thick stretcher bars. The print is professionally printed, assembled, and shipped within 2 – 3 business days from our production facility in North Carolina and arrives ready-to-hang on your wall. Fine Art America is home to more than 75,000 artists from all over the world who entrust us to fulfill their print orders online. We offer a 30-d…

Exposure $19.99 This is the eBook version of the printed book. Now that you've bought an amazing new DSLR, you need a book that goes beyond the camera manual to teach you how to take great shots, and that begins with understanding the fundamental principles of great photography. With Exposure: From Snapshots to Great Shots, popular photographer Jeff Revell starts with the basics of light, including how it works, and how to see it. In order to leverage this new understanding of light in your photography, Jeff walks the reader through one of the most important photographic principles–the exposure triangle: ISO, Shutter Speed, Aperture. Learning to apply these three elements together is the gateway to both technical and creative control of your photography. The book covers all key camera features that affect exposure (regardless of what type of DSLR you have) including aperture priority mode, shutter priority mode, and exposure compensation. Throughout the course of the book, the reader will gain an understanding of exposure for many different situations, such as taking portraits, action shots, landscapes, and more. Beautifully illustrated with large, vibrant photos, this book teaches you how to take control of your photography to get the image you want every time you pick up the camera.

Digital Photography Exposure for Dummies – Jim Doty, Jr. – Paperback $20.87 Digital Photography Exposure for Dummies

Digital Photography Exposure For Dummies $29.99 Proper exposure techniques and tips in a single practical guide Most of today’s cameras do all the work for the user, yet more and more photographers are looking to add some agility and aptitude to their do-it-all cameras. Digital Photography Exposure For Dummies builds upon skills introduced in Photography For Dummies to guide you through creating the perfect shot. Using aperture and shutter speed techniques, as well as knowledge of ISO sensitivity, lens choice, lighting, and color, you will learn a variety of methods and scenarios to produce astonishing and gripping images. Learn how to control the amount of light let into the lens for each photo Features full-color examples and comparisons in techniques Breaks down the settings and adjustments that should be made to achieve different effects Includes suggested exercises to apply as you become more comfortable with new techniques The step-by-step instructions in Digital Photography Exposure For Dummies allow you to get the picture you want every time!

Focus on Light & Exposure in Digital Photography – George Schaub – Paperback $11.3 Focus on Light & Exposure in Digital Photography

Basics Photography: Exposure $24.95 No Synopsis Available

Lighting and Exposure Techniques for Outdoor and Location Portrait Photography – J. J. Allen – Paperback $23.98 Lighting and Exposure Techniques for Outdoor and Location Portrait Photography

Focus on Light and Exposure in Digital Photography $14.95 No Synopsis Available

Digital Photography Exposure For Dummies ® $24.98 No Synopsis Available

Remote Exposure $13.95 Though many hikers and climbers carry cameras with them, they often come away feeling disappointed because their images fail to visually translate their experiences. In Remote Exposure Alexandre Buisse goes beyond the mere basics of photography and gives you the tools needed to create images that are not only of good technical quality but that are compelling as well. This book will guide you through the various options for equipment, since the requirement for lightweight gear that is able to withstand cold, adverse weather conditions presents unique challenges. Learn about the importance of having an efficient carrying system and a logical, planned workflow. Throughout the book you will find advice on where to point your camera and how to compose a strong image. Included are specific requirements for rock climbing, hiking, mountaineering, and camping. More advanced photographic topics are also covered such as digital capture and optimization techniques like high dynamic range imaging (HDRI), panoramic stitching, and how to achieve excellent results without a tripod. The pages are filled with over 100 stunning images captured by Buisse as he hiked and climbed through mountain ranges on three continents. Photographers of all levels and those who just appreciate beautiful images are sure to be inspired by this book. Foreword by Cory Richards (member of the historic climbing expedition that reached the summit of Gasherbrum II in winter).

Time Exposure of a Spinning Color Wheel Showing a Spectrum of Hues $39.99 Stephen St. John Time Exposure of a Spinning Color Wheel Showing a Spectrum of Hues – Photographic Print

Exposure and Understanding the Histogram $4.99 This is the eBook version of the printed book. What does a histogram tell you about contrast, dynamic range, underexposure, and overexposure? Why does exposure differ for digital photography versus film photography? What happens when the exposure is wrong? In this digital short, author Andrew Gibson answers these questions and more, showing how to use the histogram in practice to obtain optimum exposure. Going beyond simply focusing on how to achieve the “right” exposure for a given situation, he examines how the question of exposure is as open to creative interpretation as any other aspect of photography. By the end of this guide, you’ll understand how to take a photo that is correctly exposed using the tools provided by your DSLR camera. In this ebook, you will learn about: The exposure triangle: ISO, aperture, and shutter speed Differences between exposing for raw files and JPEG files Exposing to the right to obtain an optimum raw file Shooting in automatic mode–when to do so and how to use exposure compensation Shooting in manual mode–when to do so and how to adjust exposure

The BetterPhoto Guide to Exposure $18.99 Exposure. It’s essential to producing high-quality photographs, but mastering exposure is difficult. At last there’s a BetterPhoto guide to exposure, packed with BetterPhoto’s signature assignments, diagrams, tips, and illustrations. It’s like a full-scale photography course between the covers of the book–all taught the BetterPhoto way, just like photographers learn at the top photography-instruction site on the web. There’s plenty of information here on both digital and film photography, discussing how different file formats affect exposure, how to adjust digital files, color correction, combining digital exposures, and much more. The author’s stunning full-color photographs make this hardworking guide as inspiring as it is instructive. From the Trade Paperback edition.

Michael Freeman’s Perfect Exposure $29.95 Clear, direct, and guaranteed, the perfect exposure method looks at the way professionals work, and lays out the decisions and sequences with absolute clarity, while incorporating the latest, powerful post-processing techniques. Chosing the exposure for a photograph is infinitely complex and one of photography’s most absorbing paradoxes because it affects everything in the image and its effect on the viewer. Understanding how and why exposure works is essential, not only because it helps you to decide what is instinctively “right,” but this book will give you confidence in that decision–an invaluable skill for every single photographer. Full of beautiful photographs taken by Michael Freeman, this book will arm you with the tools you need for perfect exposure of your photographs. *Written by world-renowned expert photographer and author *Ground-breaking exposure system for the digital age of photography *Uses clear examples from real photo assignments with an explanation *Foolproof flow charts enable quick and easy comprehension

Exposure Digital Field Guide $19.99 Secrets of exposure revealed, with a bonus color checker card included Exposure is the number one topic that digital photographers want to know about. This full-color book fits in your camera bag and provides all the information you need on this very important aspect of digital photography. Exposure involves combining ISO, aperture, and shutter speed in different variations to accomplish your vision of the perfect image. Exposure Digital Field Guide takes you through the complex techniques of good exposure, taking you from hobbyist to serious amateur photographer. Explains how to adjust shutter speed and aperture to control the amount of light hitting the camera’s light sensor Teaches you how to “see the light” for the perfect exposure Helps you gain confidence as you move from automatic controls into manipulating the elements of exposure for specific results Packed with stunning full-color photographs to illustrate what you can achieve Provides suggested settings for various shooting situations and subjects Includes a tear-out color checker card to help you maintain true color Fits in your camera bag for ready reference in the field Exposure Digital Field Guide helps you master one of the most complex and intricate elements of digital photography.

Remote Exposure: A Guide to Hiking and Climbing Photography $8.99 <div><p>Though many hikers and climbers carry cameras with them, they often come away feeling disappointed because their images fail to visually translate their experiences. In <i>Remote Exposure</i> Alexandre Buisse goes beyond the mere basics of photography and gives you the tools needed to create images that are not only of good technical quality but that are compelling as well.<br/><br/> This book will guide you through the various options for equipment, since the requirement for lightweight gear that is able to withstand cold, adverse weather conditions presents unique challenges. Learn about the importance of having an efficient carrying system and a logical, planned workflow.<br/><br/> Throughout the book you will find advice on where to point your camera and how to compose a strong image. Included are specific requirements for rock climbing, hiking, mountaineering, and camping. More advanced photographic topics are also covered such as digital capture and optimization techniques like high dynamic range imaging (HDRI), panoramic stitching, and how to achieve excellent results without a tripod.<br/><br/> The pages are filled with over 100 stunning images captured by Buisse as he hiked and climbed through mountain ranges on three continents. Photographers of all levels and those who just appreciate beautiful images are sure to be inspired by this book. <br/></p> <p>Foreword by Cory Richards (member of the historic climbing expedition that reached the summit of Gasherbrum II in winter).</p></div>

Mastering Exposure in Digital Photography : Learn by Video $29.14 No Synopsis Available

Lighting and Exposure Techniques for Outdoor and Location Portrait Photography $26.21 This book is in New – Excellent condition

Panoramic Photography: From Composition and Exposure to Final Exhibition $29.2 No Synopsis Available

Alien Skin Exposure 4 $174 Alien Skins Exposure 4 is taking the digital out of digital photograpgy. You can enjoy all the creative tools of film photography, such as discontinued films, dark room tricks, and lo-fi camera quirks with this program. Alien Skin has accurately simulate classic films, like Kodachrome, Polaroid, and Panatomic-X. The result is a photo that looks like it was made by a human, not a computer

Exposure and Lighting for Digital Photographers Only $34.99 Even with digital cameras and automatic exposure, lighting and exposure remain the most difficult element to master in the quest for quality photography. This book, written by a professional photographer for photographers, provides real-world advice to help you achieve true creative control over lighting and exposure. Discover how to take your digital photos to the next level with the scores of lighting diagrams, techniques, and stunning full-color photographs. Order your copy today!

The Photographer’s Exposure Field Guide $15.95 No one knows better than world-renowned travel photographer Michael Freeman how important it is to achieve great exposure in each and every image. In this handy field guide that you can tuck in your pocket and take along on your next photo adventure, he shares his secrets for getting a good exposure every single time – tips that are just as relevant for the hobbyist and home shooters as they are for someone with expertise ability. Lighting, technical information, and creative inspiration are discussed side-by-side in this essential guide for understanding exposure – the most fundamental aspect of photography. Michael Freeman is the author of the global bestseller, The Photographer’s Eye. Now published in sixteen languages, The Photographer’s Eye continues to speak to photographers everywhere. Reaching 100,000 copies in print in the US alone, and 300,000+ worldwide, it shows how anyone can develop the ability to see and shoot great digital photographs.   Expert author of the best-selling Photographer’s Eye-over 100,000 copies in print Packed with 350+ beautiful images Portable format; it’s like having Michael right by your side as you’re out shooting Expertise advice broken down into easily understood language for the novice photographer

Exposure Photo Workshop $29.99 Named One of Shutterbug Magazines Top Digital Imaging Books of 2008! Capturing an image and getting the right exposure is critical and Jeff Wignall recognizes exposure as the secret for creating an image that captures a vision and shares it with the world. When you apply his techniques with patience, experimentation, and a focus on the outcome, you will begin creating images that reveal not only what you saw, but how you felt when you saw it. In fact according to Shutterbug magazine Exposure Photo Workshop “ may be the best book yet written about exposure .” By learning to work with natural light as well as when to use flash you will confidently capture action, night scenes, rainbows, sunsets, and reflections like never before. With stunning images, Jeff Wignall shows you how to perfectly expose pictures in even the most challenging existing light conditions, including poor weather, using a flash, and even a section guiding you through using multiple wireless flash units. You can upload your own images to Photoworkshop.com and get feedback from other photographers. Wignall starts by explaining the fundamentals of exposure and why it’s important. This leads into learning the basics of exposure controls. By the end of chapter 2, you will know how to control the exposure on your point-and-shoot or digital SLR camera. Chapter 3 walks readers through measuring light using just about any light meter and Chapter 4 delves into lens apertures and depth of field. The focus moves to shutter speed and subject motion. After Chapter 6, you’ll have the knowledge and confidence to turn off your camera’s automatic settings and take manual control. Wignall then examines natural light exposures, discussing the intricacies of light quality, light direction, and time of day. As you approach more advanced exposure options, you’ll need the troubleshooting advice provided in Chapter 8, covering difficult situations such as metering challenges, handling contrast, and creating dramatic silhouettes. With more advanced techniques mastered, you can then approach night and low-light conditions and then examine special considerations such as the weather and natural phenomena. The book finishes strong with a comprehensive look at all things flash photography.

Photography $39.54 Photography

Remote Exposure By Buisse, Alexandre $32.07 Author: Buisse, Alexandre Subtitle: A Guide to Hiking and Climbing Photography Publication Date: 2011/04/22 Number of Pages: 155 Binding Type: Hardcover Language: English Depth: 0.75 Width: 8.75 Height: 8.75

Wildlife Photography $14.95 Photographer and environmentalist Uwe Skrzypczak wrote this book with several goals in mind–to teach the technical aspects and the workflow of digital wildlife photography; to show the beauty of East Africa and his beloved Serengeti National Park and to educate about its habitat; and to provide a guide for the photographer who is planning to go on an African photo safari and wants to be prepared to capture the finest possible images. Beginning with digital photography techniques and workflow, Skrzypczak draws his own vast experience in wildlife photography to teach about the equipment, the pros and cons of camera types and lenses, and the specific requirements for this demanding task. Also covered are appropriate techniques for exposure for this demanding task. Also covered are appropriate techniques for exposure and autofocus-the latter being one of the major challenges in wildlife photography. He discusses an “on the road” workflow, the logistics of transporting your gear, and image editing. The book goes on to cover the practical aspects of wildlife photography, from shooting animal portraits to panning the camera in order to capture that speeding leopard. Example images are accompanied by a small set of pictograms showing which techniques are ideal for capturing the specific situation. Loaded with hundreds of breathtaking images, this comprehensive textbook is perfect for the beginning wildlife photographer as well as the seasoned pro. Whether your subject is African wildlife or bird photography in the Arctic Circle, Uwe Skrzypczak’s Wildlife Photography will teach you the fundamental concepts and techniques that can be applied to all forms of wildlife photography. Topics include: Equipment and accessories Planning your trip Conditions on the road The right place at the right time Image composition Where to stay and daily routine The light in east Africa Migrations and mating seasons Habitats and animal behavior River crossings The big cats, rhinos, giraffes, etc.

Studio Photography $29.95 Studio photography is a common career path for aspiring photographers and students but the professional and commercial nature of the field makes it a challenging area to break into. Whilst other introductory books on the subject are often bogged down with too much technical detail or too many show-off’ shots, Studio Photography: Essential Skills offers a practical and accessible guide to the fundamental techniques for successful studio photography. Whether photographing a person or a product, you need control over the light, mood and look to arrive at the perfect result for a particular assignment. This book takes a commercial and creative approach and considers the important elements of lighting, exposure, capture, art direction and the studio setting to ensure a successful shoot. With a clearly structured learning approach and a wide variety of activities and assignments to inspire and engage you, this is an informative, stimulating guide to the basics. Broaden your skills and increase your earning potential with Studio Photography: Essential Skills ! * Learn the basics of studio photography to get up and running fast in this commercial field * Activities and assignments help you to develop the creative thinking and vision needed for successful studio assignments * Ideal whether you are an aspiring amateur or a student looking to kick-start your career in this lucrative line of work

Location Photography $29.95 Covers all the fundamental skills required for location photography when using Digital, 35mm SLR and medium format cameras working with both existing light sources and introduced light. Through a series of practical exercises the student photographer is shown the importance of image design, communication of content and the essential techniques required for competent and consistent images capture and creation. The basic essentials, from exposure, to framing the image and how to work with light and contrast are explained in detail. New in this edition are chapters covering ‘Sensitivity and Image Capture’ and ‘Filters’. Assignments are provided for genres such as landscape, environmental portraiture and the photographic essay. Illustrated throughout with student and author work, including a new 8-page colour plate section, Location Photography is an inspirational guide as well as a structured learning tool for mastering the essential techniques. Mark Galer lectures in photography at the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, Australia – the leading photography course in the southern hemisphere. He is also co-writer and teacher on their new online photography courses. He has lectured in photography both in the UK and Australia and has worked commercially as a freelance photographer on corporate and editorial. He is also author of ‘Photography Foundations for Art and Design’, and co-author of ‘Digital Imaging: Essential Skills’ and ‘Photographic Lighting: Essential Skills’ also published by Focal Press. Email: mark.galer@rmit.edu.au * Learn the essential skills for creative and competent location photography * Put your skills into practice with numerous activities and assignments * Benefit from a highly structured, successful learning approach

Pinhole Photography $44.95 A respected guide for creatives, artists and photographers alike, Pinhole Photography is packed with all the information you need to understand and get underway with this wonderfully quirky, creative technique. Covering pinhole photography from its historical roots, pinhole expert Eric Renner, founder of pinholeresource.com, fully explores the theory and practical application of pinhole in this beautiful resource. Packed with inspiring images, instructional tips and information on a variety of pinhole cameras for beginner and advanced photographers, this classic text now offers a new chapter on digital imaging and more in depth how-to coverage for beginners, as well as revised exposure guides and optimal pinhole charts. With an expanded gallery of full-color photographs displaying the creative results of pinhole cameras, along with listings of workshops, pinhole photographer’s websites, pinhole books and suppliers of pinhole equipment, this is the one guide you need to learn the craft and navigate the industry. * Discover the history, theory and practical application of pinhole photography in this unique guide by worldwide pinhole expert, Eric Renner * Packed with large, full-color photographs showcasing the most original and imaginative ways to use pinhole photography, including digital application of pinhole techniques * Includes extensive resource section with reliable information on pinhole suppliers, websites, books and workshops that no pinhole photographer can do without

Understanding Exposure By Stansfield, Andy $24.4 An invaluable guide to taking better photographs using todays sophisticated digital SLR and compact digital cameras is aimed at the novice or more experienced amateur photographer, and the jargonfree text explains the theory behind digital photography. Original. Author: Stansfield, Andy Subtitle: The Expanded Guide Publication Date: 2011/04/01 Number of Pages: 192 Binding Type: Paperback Language: English Depth: 0.50 Width: 5.75 Height: 7.00

Digital Photography $30.95 Looking to take your photography to the next level? Need guidance on the basics, from choosing cameras to perfecting capture, managing files, editing images and developing a creative, critical eye? Packed with quality images to inspire and enthuse, Digital Photography: Essential Skills takes a refreshingly practical, focused approach to cover exactly what you need to know develop a creative, competent style and a seamless photography workflow. As a working photographer and teaching lecturer, Mark Galer is the perfect guide to take you through the skills and knowledge needed to take fantastic images. Now updated to cover file management and editing in Lightroom, Adobe’s popular workflow software, for a stream-lined process from capture to output. * Covers all the basics, from choosing a camera, managing files and editing images, to exposure, composition and lighting * Clear, detailed explanations make understanding the concepts a breeze and activities help you to put theory into practice * Packed with inspiring photographs to illustrate what you can achieve with skills and knowledge covered in the book

Panoramic Photography $29.95 It has never been easier to make panoramas–both in terms of the new lightweight equipment and the spectacular quality of the final image output. New vistas concerning this unique way to see the world and express oneself abound in Panoramic Photography: From Composition and Exposure to Final Exhibition. Written by one of the world’s pre-eminent panoramic photographers, the author, Arnaud Frich, provides diagrams to explain the technical details involved in various shots. Long on inspiration, you will find beautiful images by the author, as well as by Benot Ancelot, Franois-Xavier Bouchart, Franck Charel, Macduff Everton, David J. Osborn, and many others. Camera equipment examples and a list of suppliers make this book a valuable resource for all panoramic photographers. Inside you will find all the information you need to create your perfect panorama! Only with Panoramic Photography can you: *Explore flatback and rotating panoramic cameras and learn how swing-lens and rotational cameras work *Observe how camera choice affects the image and final composition *Learn the joining (or “stitching”) method for assembling photographs with the Realvis Stitcher and Panavue ImageAssembler *Archive and store original negatives and digital files, as well as distribute panoramic images over the Internet

The Elements of Photography $39.95 The greatly revised and expanded edition of The Elements of Photography is a new kind of textbook for a new generation of photographers. Moving far beyond the usual technical manual, Angela Faris Belt dives deep into merging technique and vision, allowing you to master craft while adding meaning to your images. Here you’ll really learn to see photographically, expand your creative and conceptual use of apertures and shutter speeds, and choose the right media to create the look and feel you want. The 2 nd Edition Includes: A new introductory chapter with thorough explanations and training exercises in metering and exposure Advice throughout the text to help you expand your personal research Extended exploration of how photography’s technical attributes affect visual outcomes and the meaning of your images Image discussions that provide additional perspective about the chapter concepts This book provides a wealth of information and guidance to help all photographers improve skills, learn new techniques, and expand ways of seeing. Excellent practical exercises allow you to use the knowledge you’ll gain to build a solid portfolio. More than 300 stunning, full-color images including portfolios from over 40 prestigious artists provide visual inspiration and a gorgeous collection of artwork to add to any photography enthusiast’s bookshelf. Whether you do fine art or commercial, documentary or editorial, or just enjoy making pictures for yourself, The Elements of Photography will take your images to the next level. *Learn from an expert author how to combine your creative vision with technical accuracy to produce images that are visually provoking as well as technically inspiring *Includes over 300 stunning full color images and highlights the portfolios of 40+ prestigious artists *Contains screenshots, before-and-after images, and how-to information to help both students and photographers practice skills and learn new techniques *Follow the suggested exercises at the end of each chapter to develop your own portfolio of images

Exposure – Patricia Murdoch – Paperback $9.95 Exposure

Exposure – Sports Illustrated – Hardcover $22.46 Exposure

Exposure – David Prkel – Paperback $22.76 Exposure

Exposure – Jeff Revell – Paperback $14.74 Exposure

Exposure – Therese Fowler – Hardcover $16.5 Exposure

Exposure – Brandilyn Collins – Paperback $10.94 Exposure

Crime Scene Photography $99.95 Crime Scene Photography, Second Edition covers the general principals and concepts of photography, while also delving into the more practical elements and advanced concepts of forensic photography. Edward Robinson assists the reader in understanding and applying essential concepts in order to create images that are able to withstand challenges in court. The first part of the book deals with the basic theory and science of photography required to take superior photographs, and covers topics such as composition, exposure, focus, depth of field, and flash techniques. The second part of the text deals specifically with the challenges of photographing a crime scene, including instructions on how to document bodies and wounds, traffic accident photography, underwater photography and aerial photography. In the latter portions of the text, the author turns to digital theory and its advantages and disadvantages. * Over 600 full color photographs, also electronically available on the companion website * Two new chapters on ‘The History of Forensic Photography,’ and ’Digital Image Processing of Evidentiary Photography’ * Includes an Instructor website with lecture slides, practical exercises, a test bank and image collection * An essential reference for crime scene photography, including topics such as Composition, the Inverse Square Law, Court Cases affecting photography, Digital Image Processing, and Photogrammetry * Required reading by the Crime Scene Certification Board of the International Association for Identification (IAI) for all levels of certification

Olympus Pen E-PL2 Micro 4/3 Camera & 14-42mm II Lens (Black) + 8GB Card + Case + Acc Kit $499.99 The PEN E-PL2 continues the PEN familys legacy of a small light and simple design intuitive interface and DSLR image quality and expands your creative potential with its lens technology Live Guide in-camera creative features and numerous optional accessories. And the E-PL2s ergonomic body makes capturing amazing still images and HD video more fun than ever before. The E-PL2 comes with the Movie & Still Compatible (MSC) ED 14-42mm f3.5/5.6 zoom lens. This lens has a smooth silent and quick inner focus mechanism to make it exceptionally fast and nearly silent when recording high-definition movie. The PEN E-PL2s Live Guide system takes the guesswork out of great photography and videography by allowing you to preview effects at the touch of a button. Want more vivid or muted color in your shot. Want warmer or cooler color. Want a brighter or darker subject or a sharper or softer background. Simply select Live Guide and turn the wheel on the back of the camera to slide through numerous photographic and videographic effects. Make adjustments and watch the LCD as the effects are made live – before the image is captured! Olympus appreciates that you may not have hours to spend retouching your images on the computer. The E-PL2 has improved Art Filters with selectable Art Filter variations that allow users to customize each filter with different moods and effects and an Art Effect function to add various composition effects to the picture. Six Art Filters are incorporated including the Dramatic Tone filter. With the E-PL2s Multiple Exposure you can shoot one shot then another and combine them in real time or capture both shots separately and combine them within the camera later. Choose from one of six background music tracks when playing an in-camera slideshow. The E-PL2 provides an overall excellent user experience with a large easy-to-view 3.0-inch 460000-dot high-resolution LCD monitor and a control dial. At the heart of the E-PL2 is a large-size image sensor thats t

Olympus Pen E-PL2 Micro 4/3 Digital Camera & 14-42mm II Lens (Red) with 8GB Card + Case + Acc Kit $499.99 The PEN E-PL2 continues the PEN familys legacy of a small light and simple design intuitive interface and DSLR image quality and expands your creative potential with its lens technology Live Guide in-camera creative features and numerous optional accessories. And the E-PL2s ergonomic body makes capturing amazing still images and HD video more fun than ever before. The E-PL2 comes with the Movie & Still Compatible (MSC) ED 14-42mm f3.5/5.6 zoom lens. This lens has a smooth silent and quick inner focus mechanism to make it exceptionally fast and nearly silent when recording high-definition movie. The PEN E-PL2s Live Guide system takes the guesswork out of great photography and videography by allowing you to preview effects at the touch of a button. Want more vivid or muted color in your shot. Want warmer or cooler color. Want a brighter or darker subject or a sharper or softer background. Simply select Live Guide and turn the wheel on the back of the camera to slide through numerous photographic and videographic effects. Make adjustments and watch the LCD as the effects are made live – before the image is captured! Olympus appreciates that you may not have hours to spend retouching your images on the computer. The E-PL2 has improved Art Filters with selectable Art Filter variations that allow users to customize each filter with different moods and effects and an Art Effect function to add various composition effects to the picture. Six Art Filters are incorporated including the Dramatic Tone filter. With the E-PL2s Multiple Exposure you can shoot one shot then another and combine them in real time or capture both shots separately and combine them within the camera later. Choose from one of six background music tracks when playing an in-camera slideshow. The E-PL2 provides an overall excellent user experience with a large easy-to-view 3.0-inch 460000-dot high-resolution LCD monitor and a control dial. At the heart of the E-PL2 is a large-size image sensor thats t

Olympus Pen E-PL2 Micro 4/3 Digital Camera & 14-42mm II Lens (Silver) with 8GB Card + Case + Acc Kit $499.99 The PEN E-PL2 continues the PEN familys legacy of a small light and simple design intuitive interface and DSLR image quality and expands your creative potential with its lens technology Live Guide in-camera creative features and numerous optional accessories. And the E-PL2s ergonomic body makes capturing amazing still images and HD video more fun than ever before. The E-PL2 comes with the Movie & Still Compatible (MSC) ED 14-42mm f3.5/5.6 zoom lens. This lens has a smooth silent and quick inner focus mechanism to make it exceptionally fast and nearly silent when recording high-definition movie. The PEN E-PL2s Live Guide system takes the guesswork out of great photography and videography by allowing you to preview effects at the touch of a button. Want more vivid or muted color in your shot. Want warmer or cooler color. Want a brighter or darker subject or a sharper or softer background. Simply select Live Guide and turn the wheel on the back of the camera to slide through numerous photographic and videographic effects. Make adjustments and watch the LCD as the effects are made live – before the image is captured! Olympus appreciates that you may not have hours to spend retouching your images on the computer. The E-PL2 has improved Art Filters with selectable Art Filter variations that allow users to customize each filter with different moods and effects and an Art Effect function to add various composition effects to the picture. Six Art Filters are incorporated including the Dramatic Tone filter. With the E-PL2s Multiple Exposure you can shoot one shot then another and combine them in real time or capture both shots separately and combine them within the camera later. Choose from one of six background music tracks when playing an in-camera slideshow. The E-PL2 provides an overall excellent user experience with a large easy-to-view 3.0-inch 460000-dot high-resolution LCD monitor and a control dial. At the heart of the E-PL2 is a large-size image sensor thats t

Olympus Pen E-PL2 Micro 4/3 Interchangeable Digital Camera & 14-42mm II Lens (Black) with 40-150mm Lens + .45x Wide & 2.5x Telephoto Lens + (2) Filters + Case + Tripod + Kit $589.95 The PEN E-PL2 continues the PEN familys legacy of a small light and simple design intuitive interface and DSLR image quality and expands your creative potential with its lens technology Live Guide in-camera creative features and numerous optional accessories. And the E-PL2s ergonomic body makes capturing amazing still images and HD video more fun than ever before. The E-PL2 comes with the Movie & Still Compatible (MSC) ED 14-42mm f3.5/5.6 zoom lens. This lens has a smooth silent and quick inner focus mechanism to make it exceptionally fast and nearly silent when recording high-definition movie. The PEN E-PL2s Live Guide system takes the guesswork out of great photography and videography by allowing you to preview effects at the touch of a button. Want more vivid or muted color in your shot. Want warmer or cooler color. Want a brighter or darker subject or a sharper or softer background. Simply select Live Guide and turn the wheel on the back of the camera to slide through numerous photographic and videographic effects. Make adjustments and watch the LCD as the effects are made live – before the image is captured! Olympus appreciates that you may not have hours to spend retouching your images on the computer. The E-PL2 has improved Art Filters with selectable Art Filter variations that allow users to customize each filter with different moods and effects and an Art Effect function to add various composition effects to the picture. Six Art Filters are incorporated including the Dramatic Tone filter. With the E-PL2s Multiple Exposure you can shoot one shot then another and combine them in real time or capture both shots separately and combine them within the camera later. Choose from one of six background music tracks when playing an in-camera slideshow. The E-PL2 provides an overall excellent user experience with a large easy-to-view 3.0-inch 460000-dot high-resolution LCD monitor and a control dial. At the heart of the E-PL2 is a large-size image sensor thats t

Olympus Pen E-PL2 Micro 4/3 Interchangeable Digital Camera & 14-42mm II Lens (Black) with M.Zuiko 40-150mm Lens + 16GB SD Card + (2) UV Filters + Case + Tripod + Accessory Kit $559.95 The PEN E-PL2 continues the PEN familys legacy of a small light and simple design intuitive interface and DSLR image quality and expands your creative potential with its lens technology Live Guide in-camera creative features and numerous optional accessories. And the E-PL2s ergonomic body makes capturing amazing still images and HD video more fun than ever before. The E-PL2 comes with the Movie & Still Compatible (MSC) ED 14-42mm f3.5/5.6 zoom lens. This lens has a smooth silent and quick inner focus mechanism to make it exceptionally fast and nearly silent when recording high-definition movie. The PEN E-PL2s Live Guide system takes the guesswork out of great photography and videography by allowing you to preview effects at the touch of a button. Want more vivid or muted color in your shot. Want warmer or cooler color. Want a brighter or darker subject or a sharper or softer background. Simply select Live Guide and turn the wheel on the back of the camera to slide through numerous photographic and videographic effects. Make adjustments and watch the LCD as the effects are made live – before the image is captured! Olympus appreciates that you may not have hours to spend retouching your images on the computer. The E-PL2 has improved Art Filters with selectable Art Filter variations that allow users to customize each filter with different moods and effects and an Art Effect function to add various composition effects to the picture. Six Art Filters are incorporated including the Dramatic Tone filter. With the E-PL2s Multiple Exposure you can shoot one shot then another and combine them in real time or capture both shots separately and combine them within the camera later. Choose from one of six background music tracks when playing an in-camera slideshow. The E-PL2 provides an overall excellent user experience with a large easy-to-view 3.0-inch 460000-dot high-resolution LCD monitor and a control dial. At the heart of the E-PL2 is a large-size image sensor thats t

Olympus Pen E-PL2 Micro 4/3 Interchangeable Digital Camera & 14-42mm II Lens (Black) with M.Zuiko 40-150mm Lens + 8GB Card + Case + Accessory Kit $549.95 The PEN E-PL2 continues the PEN familys legacy of a small light and simple design intuitive interface and DSLR image quality and expands your creative potential with its lens technology Live Guide in-camera creative features and numerous optional accessories. And the E-PL2s ergonomic body makes capturing amazing still images and HD video more fun than ever before. The E-PL2 comes with the Movie & Still Compatible (MSC) ED 14-42mm f3.5/5.6 zoom lens. This lens has a smooth silent and quick inner focus mechanism to make it exceptionally fast and nearly silent when recording high-definition movie. The PEN E-PL2s Live Guide system takes the guesswork out of great photography and videography by allowing you to preview effects at the touch of a button. Want more vivid or muted color in your shot. Want warmer or cooler color. Want a brighter or darker subject or a sharper or softer background. Simply select Live Guide and turn the wheel on the back of the camera to slide through numerous photographic and videographic effects. Make adjustments and watch the LCD as the effects are made live – before the image is captured! Olympus appreciates that you may not have hours to spend retouching your images on the computer. The E-PL2 has improved Art Filters with selectable Art Filter variations that allow users to customize each filter with different moods and effects and an Art Effect function to add various composition effects to the picture. Six Art Filters are incorporated including the Dramatic Tone filter. With the E-PL2s Multiple Exposure you can shoot one shot then another and combine them in real time or capture both shots separately and combine them within the camera later. Choose from one of six background music tracks when playing an in-camera slideshow. The E-PL2 provides an overall excellent user experience with a large easy-to-view 3.0-inch 460000-dot high-resolution LCD monitor and a control dial. At the heart of the E-PL2 is a large-size image sensor thats t